This article explores and compares the findings of ten major meta-analyses on the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies in schools, aiming to provide teachers and educators with clear insights into their practical benefits.
Each study highlights how metacognition—encompassing skills such as planning, self-monitoring, and reflection—can enhance students’ learning outcomes across diverse contexts, subjects, and age groups. From fostering problem-solving in mathematics to improving reading comprehension and self-regulated learning, these strategies consistently yield moderate to large improvements in academic performance, motivation, and strategy use. The meta-analyses underscore the versatility of metacognitive interventions, whether implemented through classroom activities, teacher-led programs, or independent student reflection.
By summarising the key findings in accessible terms and estimating a combined average effect size of approximately 0.60, this article demonstrates the transformative potential of metacognition to empower students and reduce educational disparities, offering valuable guidance for educators eager to integrate these methods into their teaching practices.
Evidence Supporting The Use of Metacognition in Schools
Meta-Analysis 1
De Boer, H., Donker, A. S., Kostons, D. D. N. M., & van der Werf, G. P. C. (2018). Long-term effects of metacognitive strategy instruction on student academic performance: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 24, 98–115. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.002
The study reviewed 48 interventions that taught students strategies incorporating metacognitive techniques, such as planning, monitoring progress, and reflecting on outcomes. The immediate impact of these strategies was substantial, with an average effect size of Hedges' g = 0.50, indicating a moderate boost in academic performance. What’s more, the benefits grew over time, with a follow-up effect size of Hedges' g = 0.63—evidence that students continued to develop and apply these strategies even after the interventions ended.
One of the most promising findings was the impact on students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, who showed significantly greater long-term improvement compared to their peers. This highlights metacognition’s potential to address educational disparities by equipping disadvantaged students with the skills to take ownership of their learning. While not all strategies were equally effective—cognitive rehearsal, for instance, showed lower long-term gains—strategies involving deeper engagement, such as elaboration and organisation, were more impactful. The sustained improvement suggests that metacognitive strategies not only teach students how to learn but also foster habits that remain effective well beyond the classroom.
For educators, this study underscores the value of incorporating metacognitive strategies into teaching practices. The findings suggest that teaching students how to plan, reflect, and self-monitor can lead to sustained academic growth across diverse groups of learners. While the overall effects were described as moderate, the evidence supports metacognition as a reliable and impactful intervention that can make a meaningful difference, particularly for students who start at a disadvantage. By embedding these strategies in daily instruction, teachers can empower students to become more independent and effective learners, with benefits that extend far beyond their time in school.
Meta-Analysis 2
Ohtani, K., & Hisasaka, T. (2018). Beyond intelligence: a meta-analytic review of the relationship among metacognition, intelligence, and academic performance. Metacognition and Learning, 13(2), 179–212. doi:10.1007/s11409-018-9183-8
Research highlights the substantial positive impact of metacognition on academic performance, underscoring its value in education. Across studies, metacognition was found to be a significant predictor of academic success, even after controlling for intelligence. This relationship was especially pronounced when metacognition was measured using on-line methods, such as think-aloud protocols and log file analysis, which showed strong correlations with academic performance (r = .53) and were more predictive than off-line methods like questionnaires (r = .23). Notably, metacognition was an even more powerful predictor of academic achievement than intelligence in studies employing on-line methods, with a higher predictive value (β = .41 for metacognition vs. β = .32 for intelligence). This finding emphasises the critical role metacognitive skills play in student learning and achievement.
The study further demonstrates that metacognitive interventions can significantly enhance educational outcomes. Programmes that teach metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring, and evaluation have been shown to improve both the use of strategies and academic performance. For instance, teaching students to reflect on their thinking processes during science learning increased their engagement in metacognitive activities and improved outcomes. These interventions are particularly impactful when they integrate both declarative and procedural components of metacognition, empowering students with tools to self-direct and optimise their learning processes.
From an educational perspective, these findings are transformative. They suggest that metacognition is not only a core component of effective learning but also an area where targeted teaching can yield substantial benefits. Unlike intelligence, which is often considered static, metacognitive skills can be cultivated through intentional educational practices. By fostering metacognitive awareness and strategy use, teachers and educational psychologists can significantly boost academic performance, bridging gaps in achievement and enabling all students to realise their potential. The evidence strongly supports integrating metacognition into curricula as a means to enhance educational effectiveness and student success.
Meta-Analysis 3
Muncer, G., Higham, P. A., Gosling, C. J., Cortese, S., Wood-Downie, H., & Hadwin, J. A. (2021). A Meta-Analysis Investigating the Association Between Metacognition and Math Performance in Adolescence. Educational Psychology Review. doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09620-x
Research demonstrates a strong positive association between metacognition (MC) and mathematics performance in adolescents, highlighting its potential as a transformative tool in education. A meta-analysis of 31 studies involving over 570,000 students revealed a medium-sized correlation (r = .37), with the relationship being particularly pronounced when metacognition was measured in real-time during learning (on-line methods, r > .40) and when applied to complex mathematics tasks (r = .54). These findings underscore the importance of integrating metacognitive strategies into educational practices, especially within challenging or higher-order problem-solving contexts where strategic thinking, monitoring, and evaluation are key to success.
The study’s analysis highlighted that on-line MC measures, such as think-aloud protocols and real-time judgement of learning (JOL), were more strongly linked to improved maths outcomes than off-line methods, such as questionnaires. This suggests that metacognitive processes are most effective when students actively engage in reflective practices during problem-solving, rather than relying on static assessments of general metacognitive abilities. Combining on-line MC with complex maths tasks produced the largest effect sizes, emphasising the value of situating metacognitive strategies within the context of demanding academic challenges. These findings suggest that teaching students to reflect on their thinking during complex tasks could significantly enhance their learning outcomes.
The implications for educators are clear: fostering metacognition in mathematics education could help students not only identify their strengths and weaknesses but also adapt their learning behaviours to address specific challenges. Encouraging students to make real-time judgements about their understanding while solving problems can lead to better outcomes by promoting active engagement with the material. Future research should explore how metacognition interacts with other factors, such as anxiety, executive functioning, and access to resources, to provide a more nuanced understanding of how to optimise metacognitive practices in the classroom. By focusing on the dynamic relationship between metacognitive processes and learning, educators can empower students to take greater control of their academic success in mathematics and beyond.
Meta-Anslysis 4
Sercenia, J. C., & Prudente, M. S. (2023). Effectiveness of the metacognitive-based pedagogical intervention on mathematics achievement: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Instruction, 16(4), 561-578. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2023.16432 [pdf link: International Journal of Instruction]
Drawing from 23 empirical studies conducted between 2015 and 2022, the research analysed data from over 2,600 students across various educational levels. The results revealed a large overall effect size (g=1.611) for metacognitive strategies, confirming their effectiveness in improving mathematics achievement. Techniques such as planning, monitoring, evaluation, think-aloud protocols, journal writing, concept mapping, and the KWL method emerged as particularly impactful. These strategies help students identify and manage their cognitive processes, fostering a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts and improving their problem-solving skills.
The analysis also explored the effects of MBPI across different educational levels and mathematics subdomains. While the intervention proved equally effective for primary, secondary, and tertiary education, the most substantial gains were observed at the secondary level (g=1.666). In terms of subject areas, statistics and probability benefited most (g=3.297), followed by arithmetic (g=2.572) and algebra (g=1.919). Geometry showed a smaller effect size (g=0.445), highlighting the varying impact of MBPI across mathematical topics. Notably, MBPI was also highly effective in enhancing specific learning outcomes, such as mathematical reasoning (g=3.868), creative thinking (g=2.184), and communication skills (g=2.158), demonstrating its versatility in addressing diverse educational goals.
The study underscores the importance of integrating metacognitive strategies into mathematics education. By enabling students to reflect on their learning processes and actively engage with challenging material, MBPI empowers them to take control of their education and achieve better outcomes. Teachers are encouraged to adopt these strategies and receive adequate training to implement them effectively. The findings provide a strong foundation for future research and policy decisions, advocating for a broader application of MBPI to transform mathematics teaching and learning across various educational settings.
Meta-Analysis 5
Lee, Y., Capraro, M. M., Capraro, R. M., & Bicer, A. (2018). A meta-analysis: Improvement of students’ algebraic reasoning through metacognitive training. International Education Studies, 11(10), 42. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v11n10p42 [pdf: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1192530.pdf]
This meta-analysis highlights the substantial positive impact of metacognitive training on students' algebraic reasoning. By synthesising data from 18 studies encompassing 22 effect sizes, the study identified a large and statistically significant effect size (d = 0.973, SE = 0.196) after removing one outlier. The original analysis showed an even larger effect size (d = 2.284), though its robustness was less clear due to the presence of heterogeneity. These findings underscore the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies, such as planning, monitoring, and self-regulation, in enhancing students’ ability to reason algebraically. Notably, the reconstructed meta-analysis demonstrated more stable results, strongly supporting the use of metacognitive training as an impactful pedagogical tool.
The meta-analysis also revealed that the effectiveness of metacognitive training might vary depending on the method employed, such as computer-based, collaborative, or individual training. Despite these differences, all forms of metacognitive training were found to contribute positively to algebraic reasoning. This suggests that exposure to metacognitive strategies enables students to better understand and engage with algebraic concepts, potentially leading to significant improvements in their problem-solving abilities. However, the study identified a need for further research into the comparative effectiveness of specific metacognitive methods to optimise instructional design.
One limitation of the study is the lack of a standardised instrument for measuring algebraic reasoning across the included studies, with some researchers using broader tools for mathematics or algebraic achievement. Additionally, qualitative studies were excluded, reducing the pool of analysed data to 18 studies. Despite these limitations, the results strongly advocate for the integration of metacognitive training into mathematics curricula. This approach offers a practical pathway to improving algebraic reasoning, with significant implications for teaching practices and future research in mathematics education.
Meta-Analysis 6
Theobald, M. (2021). Self-regulated learning training programs enhance university students’ academic performance, self-regulated learning strategies, and motivation: A meta-analysis. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 66, 101976. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101976
This paper focuses more on self-regulated learning in general, more than metacognition (the cognitive aspect of self-regulated learning). This recent meta-analysis involving 49 studies and over 5,700 university students demonstrates the significant impact of SRL training on various outcomes. The programs showed an overall medium effect on academic performance (g = 0.37) and even higher effects on metacognitive strategies (g = 0.40) and resource management skills (g = 0.39). These results suggest that SRL training helps students better plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning while effectively managing their time, effort, and resources. Additionally, the training fostered motivational improvements, including increased intrinsic interest and self-efficacy (g = 0.35), which are crucial for sustained academic engagement and success.
Key to the success of SRL programs is the focus on metacognitive reflection. Encouraging students to think critically about when, why, and how to apply learning strategies enhances their ability to adapt to different academic tasks. Methods such as teacher feedback, cooperative learning environments, and the use of learning protocols (e.g., journals or checklists) were found to boost the effectiveness of SRL training. For example, cooperative learning promotes collaborative discussions and peer feedback, improving goal-setting and problem-solving skills. Feedback from teachers, when specific and actionable, not only improves strategy use but also builds students’ confidence in their ability to succeed. Embedding SRL strategies into specific subject areas further increases their applicability and impact, making the training directly relevant to students' academic goals.
One of the standout findings is the universal benefit of SRL training, with students across age groups and achievement levels demonstrating gains. However, older students and those with lower prior academic performance showed particular improvement in resource management, likely because they had more room to grow in these areas. Teachers can take advantage of these findings by integrating SRL principles into their instruction, using structured opportunities for reflection and feedback to help students develop lifelong learning habits. By fostering metacognitive skills and motivation, SRL training empowers students to take control of their education, improving not only their academic outcomes but also their confidence and resilience as learners.
Meta-Analysis 7
Eberhart, J., Schäfer, F., & Bryce, D. (n.d.). Are metacognition interventions in young children effective? Evidence from a series of meta-analyses. University of Tübingen, Technical University of Darmstadt, & University of Augsburg. [Full text link: PsyArXiv Preprints | Are metacognition interventions in young children effective? Evidence from a series of meta-analyses]
This meta-analysis underscores the significant benefits of incorporating metacognitive interventions into early education, particularly for pre- and elementary school students. Metacognitive learners, who plan, monitor, adapt, and reflect on their strategies, are better equipped to achieve academic success. The study found that interventions promoting metacognition resulted in notable immediate improvements (effect size g = 0.48) in self-regulated learning and academic performance, with longer-term effects (g = 0.29) on self-efficacy and executive functions. Importantly, interventions delivered by teachers or through task materials were more effective than those delivered by researchers, highlighting the growing capability of educators to integrate these strategies successfully into classroom settings. This indicates the critical role of teachers in fostering metacognitive skills and the value of providing them with effective tools and training.
The study revealed flexibility in the application of metacognitive strategies, showing positive outcomes across various approaches and instructional methods, such as feedback, task-based prompts, and direct teaching of metacognitive strategies. While no single method consistently outperformed others, feedback emerged as a particularly effective tool for enhancing children’s metacognitive skills. Interestingly, the interventions also demonstrated that metacognition can be cultivated alongside other cognitive or motivational objectives, making it feasible for educators to integrate metacognitive strategies into existing curricula without the need for significant restructuring. This approach encourages a dynamic, context-sensitive pedagogy that empowers teachers to tailor interventions to their students’ unique needs.
For educators, these findings offer practical insights into implementing metacognitive practices. By embedding metacognition into routine classroom activities, such as prompting students to reflect on their learning processes or providing feedback on strategy use, teachers can foster self-regulation and confidence in their pupils. While the immediate academic gains are evident, the delayed improvement in self-efficacy suggests a cumulative, long-term benefit of these practices. This meta-analysis reinforces the notion that metacognitive instruction is not only effective but also adaptable, engaging, and low-cost, making it an invaluable tool for enhancing the learning experiences of young students.
Meta-Analysis 8
Dent, A. L., & Koenka, A. C. (2015). The Relation Between Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement Across Childhood and Adolescence: A Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 425–474. doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9320-8
This study presents a synthesis of findings from two meta-analyses exploring the relationship between academic achievement and self-regulated learning (SRL) among students in elementary and secondary education. The meta-analyses focus on metacognitive processes, such as planning and self-monitoring, and cognitive strategies, like elaboration and rehearsal. Results indicate that while both components are significantly correlated with academic performance, metacognitive processes show a stronger overall correlation (r = 0.20) compared to cognitive strategies (r = 0.11). Key findings reveal systematic variations influenced by factors such as the type of learning strategy, academic subject, grade level, and the nature of achievement measures, highlighting how specific strategies and contexts moderate the relationship between SRL and achievement.
Metacognitive processes, particularly composite measures encompassing multiple strategies, showed the strongest correlations with academic performance. Planning emerged as a significant predictor, while processes like goal setting and self-monitoring exhibited variability in their associations depending on how they were measured. Cognitive strategies that facilitate deep learning, such as selecting main ideas and elaboration, were positively correlated with achievement, whereas surface strategies, like rote memorization, showed weaker or negative associations. These patterns emphasize the importance of fostering strategies that promote deeper engagement with learning material.
The findings underscore practical implications for educators, suggesting the need to support students in developing metacognitive awareness and adaptive cognitive strategies tailored to their academic contexts. While online measures of SRL were found to provide more accurate insights into students' regulatory behaviours, offline self-report questionnaires often underestimated the correlation with achievement. Teachers can use these insights to design interventions that not only enhance SRL skills but also address subject-specific demands and developmental stages, ultimately improving educational outcomes. Future research should expand to include cross-cultural perspectives and explore other dimensions of SRL, such as resource management, to further inform effective teaching practices.
Meta-Analysis 9
Higgins, S., Hall, E., Baumfield, V., & Moseley, D. (2005). A meta-analysis of the impact of the implementation of thinking skills approaches on pupils. Link: A meta-analysis of the impact of the implementation of thinking skills approaches on pupils
This systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the impact of thinking skills programmes and approaches on pupils' attainment and attitudes in schools. The meta-analysis incorporated 29 studies, spanning a range of educational contexts, with a focus on primary and secondary schools in the US and UK. The quantitative synthesis found that thinking skills interventions yielded a significant positive effect on both cognitive measures (effect size = 0.62) and curriculum outcomes (effect size = 0.62).
However, considerable variation was observed across interventions, subjects, and contexts, underscoring the need for careful interpretation. Notable findings highlighted the strong impact of metacognitive interventions (effect size = 0.96), as well as subject-specific variations, with greater effects in mathematics and science compared to reading.
The review identified strengths such as the extensive inclusion of diverse literature, the application of meta-analytic techniques to aggregate findings, and close collaboration with user groups to ensure relevance for practitioners. Despite these strengths, limitations included heterogeneity in the results, insufficient reporting of programme details and implementation processes, and the relatively small sample of studies available for in-depth analysis. Methodological critiques of meta-analysis, such as the reliance on the quality of included studies, were acknowledged, along with the broad and sometimes ambiguous definition of "thinking skills."
The implications of these findings suggest that thinking skills programmes are generally effective and should be supported in educational settings. For practitioners, these approaches are likely to enhance pupil learning, but their implementation should be tailored to specific contexts and monitored for effectiveness. Policymakers are encouraged to promote these programmes, though further research is necessary to clarify the mechanisms driving their impact, particularly in different subjects, age groups, and teaching contexts. Researchers are urged to improve the transparency and comprehensiveness of their studies to facilitate more robust future analyses.
Meta-Analysis 10
Dignath, C., & Büttner, G. (2008). Components of fostering self-regulated learning among students. A meta-analysis on intervention studies at primary and secondary school level. Metacognition and Learning, 3(3), 231–264. doi:10.1007/s11409-008-9029-x
This meta-analysis investigated the effectiveness of self-regulated learning interventions across 74 studies at the primary and secondary school levels, analysing 357 effect sizes. The interventions demonstrated a significant overall effect (mean effect size = 0.69), with outcomes measured in academic performance, strategy use, and motivation. Metacognitive approaches were particularly impactful, especially in secondary schools, where they supported strategy refinement and application. The study highlighted that interventions focusing on mathematics yielded stronger effects compared to reading/writing, with researchers achieving higher outcomes than regular teachers.
Key findings revealed that primary school students benefited most from motivational and metacognitive strategies, reflecting their need for foundational support and strategy acquisition. In contrast, secondary students achieved greater success through metacognitive reflection, leveraging their existing strategy repertoire for more sophisticated learning applications. Interventions also varied by subject, with mathematics showing the highest impact at the primary level, while reading/writing interventions proved more effective at the secondary level, likely due to differences in cognitive load and developmental readiness for strategy use.
The results underscore the importance of metacognitive reflection in fostering self-regulated learning, suggesting that interventions integrating feedback and reflective practices are most effective. However, challenges remain in scaling these programmes, particularly in ensuring teacher training and effective classroom implementation. The findings advocate for sustained, collaborative efforts between researchers and practitioners to refine and adapt interventions for diverse educational contexts.
Conclusion
Across ten comprehensive meta-analyses evaluating the effectiveness of metacognitive interventions in primary and secondary schools, metacognition consistently emerged as a powerful enhancer of academic performance, strategy use, and student motivation.
The aggregated effect sizes from these studies ranged from moderate to large, with an estimated average effect size of approximately 0.60. Notably, interventions that emphasized metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring, and reflective practices demonstrated substantial and sustained improvements in academic outcomes, particularly in mathematics and science subjects. These programs were especially effective when implemented by researchers rather than regular teachers and showed significant benefits for students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, highlighting metacognition’s potential to reduce educational disparities.
Additionally, longer-duration interventions and those incorporating metacognitive reflection yielded higher effect sizes, underscoring the importance of sustained and reflective practice in fostering self-regulated learning. Overall, the findings strongly advocate for the integration of metacognitive strategies into school curricula, as they not only enhance immediate academic performance but also equip students with enduring skills for lifelong learning.
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